Esposito on Islam

Society Religion & Philosophy
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John Esposito is one of my FAVOURITE authors regarding Islam; he’s the University Professor of Religion and International Affairs and Founding Director of the Center for Muslim-Christian Understanding at the Walsh School of Foreign Service, Georgetown University. He also served as president of the Middle East Studies Association and is Editor-in-Chief of the four-volume Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World.

He’s beginning a series of articles with Gulf News.

i want this thread to be a repository of his series of articles; if you want to discuss/criticize something specific, please do so only if you keep your comments respectful.

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Starting today, Gulf News will publish a series of eight articles by Esposito shedding light on the many areas of Islam, among them being the Holy Quran, politics, women, and terrorism, to eliminate the misunderstandings in Islam.

Understanding Islam, 18 July 2003

The attacks on the World Trade Centre and the Pentagon of September 11, 2001, and subsequent acts of terrorism in Indonesia, Saudi Arabia and Morocco continue to raise questions about the relationship of Islam to violence and terrorism. At the same time, the Bush administration’s conducting of its war against global terrorism has led many Muslims to question whether this is a war against Islam and the Muslim world and an attempt to redraw the map of the Middle East and the Muslim world. Many in the Muslim world and in the West warn of a clash of civilisations.

I am delighted to have this opportunity in this and in future articles to discuss these and many other questions about Islam and the relationship of the Muslim world to the West. Historically, relations between Islam and Christianity, the Muslim world and the West, have been one of co-existence as well as conflict.

In a world of globalisation, weapons of mass destruction and global terrorism, we are challenged as never before to promote mutual understanding and respect, co-existence and co-operation. For as is sometimes forgotten, despite differences, Muslims, Christians and Jews embrace an absolute monotheism, are all People of the Book; Islam recognises God’s revelation to Moses and Jesus, is a religion of peace, moral responsibility and accountability and, like the other children of Abraham, shares a passion for social justice.

Equally important – all in the mainstream of Muslim, Christian and Jewish societies and communities today share a common enemy: global terrorism. To say all of this is not to deny the differences and grievances engendered in recent years by the Palestinian-Israeli conflict, the Gulf War of 1990-1991, sanctions and more recently the war in Iraq, the September 11, 2001, attacks, etc.

The first batch of my columns will deal with many of the questions and issues raised over the years, especially post 9/11: what is Islam’s teachings regarding violence and terrorism, suicide bombings and martyrdom, Jews and Christians, jihad, gender relations, democracy, pluralism.

Today I will deal specifically with the issue of jihad, violence and terrorism.

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What is jihad?

Jihad (exertion or struggle) is sometimes referred to as the Sixth Pillar of Islam. The importance of jihad is rooted in the Holy Quran's command to struggle (the literal meaning of the word jihad) in the path of God and in the example of the Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) and his early Companions.

The history of the Muslim community from the Prophet (PBUH) to the present day can be read within the framework of what the Holy Quran teaches about jihad. These Holy Quranic teachings have been of essential significance to Muslim self-understanding, piety, mobilisation, expansion, and defence. Jihad as struggle pertains to the difficulty and complexity of living a good life: struggling against the evil in oneself – to be virtuous and moral, making a serious effort to do good deeds and helping to reform society.

Depending on the circumstances in which one lives, it also can mean fighting injustice and oppression, spreading and defending Islam, and creating a just society through preaching, teaching, and, if necessary, armed struggle or holy war.

The two broad meanings of jihad, non-violent and violent, are contrasted in a well-known Prophetic tradition. It is said that when Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) returned from battle he told his followers: "We return from the lesser jihad (warfare) to the greater jihad." The greater jihad is the more difficult and more important struggle against one's ego, selfishness, greed, and evil.

In its most general meaning, jihad refers to the obligation incumbent on all Muslims, individuals and the community, to follow and realise God's will: to lead a virtuous life and to extend the Islamic community through preaching, education, personal example, writing, etc. Jihad also includes the right, indeed the obligation, to defend Islam and the community from aggression. Throughout history, the call to jihad has rallied Muslims to the defence of Islam. The Afghan mujahideen fought a decade-long jihad against Soviet occupation not long ago.
Jihad is a concept with multiple meanings, used and abused throughout Islamic history. Although jihad has always been an important part of the Islamic tradition, in recent years some have maintained that it is a universal religious obligation for all true Muslims to join the jihad to promote Islamic reform or revolution.

Some look around them and see a world dominated by corrupt authoritarian regimes and a wealthy elite minority concerned solely with its own economic prosperity and awash in Western culture and values. Western governments are perceived as propping up oppressive regimes and exploiting the region's human and natural resources, robbing Muslims of their culture and their option to be governed according to their own choice and to live in a more just society.

Mainstream Islamic activists believe that the restoration of Muslim power and prosperity requires a return to Islam, a political or social revolution to create more Islamically oriented states or societies. A radicalised violent minority combine militancy with messianic visions to inspire and mobilise an army of God whose jihad they believe will liberate Muslims at home and abroad. Despite the fact that jihad is not supposed to be used for aggressive warfare, it has been, and continues to be, so used by some rulers, governments, and individuals such as Saddam Hussain in the Gulf War of 1991, the Taliban in Afghanistan, and Osama bin Laden and Al Qaida.

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Does the Holy Quran condone terrorism?

This is the kind of question no one asks of his or her own religion; we save it for others! Historically, some Muslims have engaged in terrorism and used religion to justify their actions. For many who have little previous knowledge of Islam or Muslims, acts of terrorism committed by extremists, in particular 9/11, raise the question of whether there is something in Islam or the Holy Quran that fosters violence and terrorism.

Islam, like all religions, neither supports nor requires illegitimate violence. The Holy Quran does not advocate or condone terrorism. The God of the Holy Quran is consistently portrayed as a God of mercy and compassion as well as a just judge.

Every verse of the Holy Quran begins with a reference to God’s mercy and compassion; throughout the Holy Quran in many contexts, Muslims are reminded to be merciful and just. Indeed, whenever a pious Muslim begins an activity such as a meal, writing a letter, or driving a car, he or she says: “Al-Rahman Al-Rahim” (In the name of God the Merciful and Compassionate). However, Islam does permit, indeed at times requires, Muslims to defend themselves and their families, religion, and community from aggression.

Like all scriptures, Islamic sacred texts must be read within the social and political contexts in which they were revealed. It is not surprising that the Holy Quran, like the Hebrew scriptures or the Old Testament, has verses that address fighting and the conduct of war.

The world in which the Islamic community emerged was a rough neighbourhood. Arabia and the city of Mecca, in which Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) lived and received God’s revelation, were beset by tribal raids and cycles of vengeance and vendetta. The broader Near East, in which Arabia was located, was itself divided between two warring superpowers, the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) and the Sasanian (Persian) empires.

The earliest Holy Quranic verses, dealing with the right to engage in a “defensive” jihad, or struggle, were revealed shortly after the hijra (emigration) of Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) and his followers to Medina in flight from their persecution in Mecca.

At a time when they were forced to fight for their lives, Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) is told: “Leave is given to those who fight because they were wronged – surely God is able to help them — who were expelled from their homes wrongfully for saying, ‘Our Lord is God’”(22:39–40).

The defensive nature of jihad is clearly emphasised in 2:190: “And fight in the way of God with those who fight you, but aggress not: God loves not the aggressors.” At critical points throughout the years, Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) received revelations from God that provided guidelines for the jihad.

As the Muslim community grew, questions quickly emerged as to what was proper behaviour during times of war. The Holy Quran provided detailed guidelines and regulations regarding the conduct of war: who is to fight and who is exempted (48:17, 9:91), when hostilities must cease (2:192), and how prisoners should be treated (47:4). Most important, verses such as 2:294, emphasised that warfare and the response to violence and aggression must be proportional: “Whoever transgresses against you, respond in kind.”

However, Holy Quranic verses also underscore that peace, not violence and warfare, is the norm. Permission to fight the enemy is balanced by a strong mandate for making peace: “If your enemy inclines towards peace, then you too should seek peace and put your trust in God” (8:61) and “Had Allah wished, He would have made them dominate you, and so if they leave you alone and do not fight you and offer you peace, then Allah allows you no way against them” (4:90). From the earliest times, it was forbidden in Islam to kill non-combatants as well as women and children and monks and rabbis, who were given the promise of immunity unless they took part in fighting.

But what of those verses, sometimes referred to as the “sword verses,” that call for killing unbelievers, such as: “When the sacred months have passed, slay the idolaters wherever you find them, and take them and confine them and lie in wait for them at every place of ambush” (9:5)? This is one of a number of Holy Quranic verses that are cited by critics to demonstrate the inherently violent nature of Islam and its scripture. These same verses have also been selectively used (or abused) by religious extremists to develop a theology of hate and intolerance and to legitimise unconditional warfare against unbelievers.

During the period of expansion and conquest, many of the ulama (religious scholars) enjoyed royal patronage and provided a rationale for caliphs to pursue their imperial dreams and extend the boundaries of their empires. They said that the “sword verses” abrogated or overrode the earlier Holy Quranic verses that limited jihad to defensive war: In fact, however, the full intent of “When the sacred months have passed, slay the idolaters wherever you find them” is missed or distorted when quoted in isolation. For it is followed and qualified by: “But if they repent and fulfill their devotional obligations and pay the zakat (the charitable tax on Muslims), then let them go their way, for God is forgiving and kind”(9:5).

The same is true of another often quoted verse: “Fight those who believe not in God nor the Last Day, nor hold that forbidden which hath been forbidden by God and His Apostle, nor hold the religion of truth (even if they are) of the People of the Book,” which is often cited without the line that follows, “Until they pay the tax with willing submission, and feel themselves subdued” (9:29).

Throughout history, the sacred scriptures of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam have been used and abused, interpreted and misinterpreted, to justify resistance and liberation struggles, extremism and terrorism, holy and unholy wars. Terrorists like Osama bin Laden and others go beyond classical Islam’s criteria for a just jihad and recognise no limits but their own, employing any weapons or means.

They reject Islamic laws regarding the goals and legitimate means for a valid jihad: that violence must be proportional and that only the necessary amount of force should be used to repel the enemy, that innocent civilians should not be targeted, and that jihad must be declared by the ruler or head of state.

Today, individuals and groups, religious and lay, seize the right to declare and legitimise unholy wars of terrorism in the name of Islam.

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How can Islam be used to justify terrorism, hijackings, and hostage- taking?

While the atrocities and acts of terrorism committed by violent extremists have connected Islam with terrorism, the Islamic tradition places limits on the use of violence and rejects terrorism, hijackings, and hostage taking.

As with other faiths, mainstream and normative doctrines and laws are ignored, distorted, or hijacked and misinterpreted by a radical fringe. Islamic law, drawing on the Holy Quran, sets out clear guidelines for the conduct of war and rejects acts of terrorism. Among other things, it is quite specific in calling for the protection of non-combatants as well as for proportional retaliation.

As the Muslim community grew, questions quickly emerged about who had religious and political authority, how to handle rebellion and civil war, what was proper behaviour during times of war and peace, and how to rationalise and legitimise expansion and conquest, violence and resistance. Answers were developed by referring to Holy Quranic injunctions and the practice of Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) and his companions.

The Holy Quran provides detailed guidelines and regulations regarding war: who should fight (48:17, 9:91), when fighting should end (2:192), how to treat prisoners (47:4). It emphasises proportionality in warfare: "Whoever transgresses against you, respond in kind"(2:194).

Other verses provide a strong mandate for making peace: "If your enemy inclines toward peace then you too should seek peace and put your trust in God" (8:61) and "Had Allah wished, He would have made them dominate you and so if they leave you alone and do not fight you and offer you peace, then Allah allows you no way against them" (4:90).

Since its beginnings, the Islamic community faced rebellion and civil wars, violence and terrorism, epitomised by groups like the Kharijites and Assassins. The Kharijites were a pious but puritanical and militant extremist group that broke with the caliph Ali and later assassinated him.

The Assassins lived apart in secret communities from which they were guided by a series of Grand Masters, who ruled from the mountain fortress of Alamut in northern Persia. The Assassins' jihad against the Seljuq Dynasty terrorised princes, generals, and ulama (scholars), whom they murdered in the name of the Hidden Imam. They struck such terror in the hearts of their Muslim and Crusader enemies that their exploits in Persia and Syria earned them a name and memory in history long after they were overrun and the Mongols executed their last Grand Master in 1256.

The response of Sunni Islam and Islamic law was to marginalise extremists and develop a political theory that emphasised stability over chaos and anarchy. This, of course, did not dissuade all from the extremist path.

In more recent decades, alongside mainstream Islamic political opposition, terrorist groups have risen to challenge regimes and terrorise their populations and attack foreign interests. Often they portray themselves as the "true believers" struggling against repressive regimes and in the midst of a "pagan" society of unbelief. They attempt to impose their ideological brand of Islam and "hijack" Islamic doctrines such as jihad, claiming to be defending true Islam, to legitimise their illegitimate use of violence and acts of terrorism.

In Egypt, groups like Egypt's Islamic Jihad, and other extremist groups, assassinated President Anwar Sadat and other government officials, slaughtered tourists in Luxor, burned churches and killed Christians.

In Algeria, the Armed Islamic Group has engaged in a campaign of terror against the Algerian government. Osama bin Laden and Al Qaida undertook a global war of terror against Muslim governments and America, distorting Islam and countering Islamic law in issuing their own fatwas (legal opinions) in an attempt to legitimise their war and call for attacks against civilians (non-combatants).

Although these groups tend to receive the most media coverage because of the high-profile atrocities they commit, they represent only an extremist minority, not the majority of Muslims.

Despite the fact that Europe and America have had long associations with Muslim countries politically and economically, and that today Islam and Muslims are an integral part of the West, the second largest religion in Europe and the third largest in America, Islam and the mainstream of Muslim societies are judged not by their faith but by the acts of Muslim extremists and terrorist groups like Osama bin Laden and Al Qaida.

Ironically, when Christian or Jewish extremists commit acts of violence and terror, they are automatically and reflexively distinguished as extremists, that is, deviating from the normative and mainstream faith of Judaism and Christianity.

However, today Islam is not treated in a similar fashion. Thus, when many use the phrase "Muslim extremist", it is often not to distinguish the extremist from the mainstream for indeed many continue to question or to believe that Islam itself is extremist. Addressing and correcting this issue is critical today not only in terms of religious, political and economic relations between the Muslim world and the West but also in terms of the acceptance and civil rights of the mainstream Muslim majority in the West.

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A Jihadi, a religious terrorist can be easily understood, and targeted.

But people who are sitting behind the curtain and leading the world community into oblivion are more dangerous.

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Thanks for sharing that, Nadia. Great article.

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:flower1: That’s so sweet of you, Sadya. It’s comments like yours that make participating in this Forum a pleasure. i realize it is extremely long but thank you so much for spending the time to read it. Appreciated.

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Very Nice Article Nadia, but i want to clarify something.

The Author of that article had mix up kharjites and those assasins of Almauta of iran with each other.

The assasins of almauta were devout Ismaili shias and they took their spiritual inspiration from the fatmid dynasty of Africa.

The Kharjitest hated both sunnis and shias.

They saw Ali and Mawia the destroyers of Islam that's why they were neither accepted by sunnis nor by shias.

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:flower1: Many many thanks for the clarification. :flower1:

Solely in view of my past experiences, i would just appreciate that, for the purposes of maintaining the thread’s continuity, we focus upon the larger aspects of Esposito’s comments…i.e., everything to do regarding violence, jihad, the historical contexts of particular revelations of Surahs. My thanks in advance. :flower1:

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I like Esposito as well. IN the wake of the terrorist attacks on my hometown, NYC, I bought his book called 'Unholy War". A great compilation of historic evidence that showed that jihad is an antiquated phenomenon, perverted of meaning by trrorists who use the "supposed" god's mandate to kill innocents in search of rewards in the afterlife.

He doesn't mince words and asserts that until the adherents of ISlam figure out the meanings of what the supposed word of god is, they would continually be at odds with the rest of the world and themselves.

Secondly, he wonderfully put forth that it is not the non-mulims that misinterpret the koran or the terms like Jihad , it is the muslims themselves. Names such as Army of Muhammad, Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigade and others themselves invoke religion into their misguided and terrorist ways. And hte rest of the muslims are scared into either staying quiet or even aiding these terrorists cause, because the kind of idolization that muslims have for Mohammad, someone purportedly doing his bidding cannot be all that bad. This kind of misguided thinking is what is pervasive also in the msulim world and until that changes, there will always be cooption of Islam by terrorists.

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Yes there is no doubt in the fact that Islam has been hijacked by bunch of mullahs, but the author of that article has forgot to mention the comment on several types of Jihad.

He only talks about the greatest jihad among yourself, but in my opinion this can only applicable during the time of peace and when justice reigns the land.

However, today through out the world the muslims are oppressed. Oppressed by who? By themselsves too nodoubt and also by the west.

Why do you think the west tends to associate the word terrorist with Islam? Because behind every terrorist attack, there is a muslim. In the similaryway, they fail to understand the reason why such things happen because the population of muslim countries stereotype the west as satan in the same way as they stereotype muslims as terrorists.

What makes them stereotype that notion? I will not go far. Take afghanistan, iraq and pakistan for example. USA refused pakistan to make the delivery of f16 plans. The support of usa to saddam and providing him chemical weapons during the iran iraq war, on the other hand abandoning iraq and then making an attack on iraq. Supporting the afghan jihad and the same war lords, but after when the war is over the same afghan war heroes were declare barbarians and terrorist.

Saddam and those war lords were barbarians from the beginning but USA tend to ignore them because usa was using them for its own puposes. Therefore, such kind of things make an average person mad. And then you have osama bin laden in which they see a messiah who promise them that he will kill all the satanic west and will spread islam.

You see? You can't just blame it on muslims or whatever. There is a hypocrisy from both sides which the author really fails to mention because he has not lived or grew up in such places which have been victimized from the country he is from.

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JIhad as practiced by the like of islamic terrorists gets its name from the perverse understanding of tha tenet by the terrorists themselves. It is not a misunderstanding that non-muslims have. We are only used to one type of jihad. The one that kills innocents. Maybe the muslims themselves need to take back the meaning of jihad from the terrorists.

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I have never seen a Muslim student saying that he is on a Jihad when he appears in college examination.

Though people carrying AK47 are seen often gloryfying Jihad.

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This is the third installation of John Esposito’s series of articles from the Gulf News.

Islam: Basic belief and practice

Like all faiths, Islam is a rich religious tradition whose unity of faith is accompanied by a diversity of practice. However, that diversity rests upon a common core of belief.

What are the core beliefs that unite all Muslims?

Despite a rich diversity in Islamic practice, there are five simple required observances prescribed in the Holy Quran that all practicing Muslims accept and follow. These “Pillars of Islam” represent the core and common denominator that unites all Muslims and distinguishes Islam from other religions. Meeting the obligations required by the Pillars reinforces an ongoing presence of God in Muslims’ lives and reminds them of their membership in a single worldwide community of believers.

  1. The first pillar is called the Declaration of Faith. A Muslim is one who bears witness (shahada), who testifies that “there is no God but God [Allah] and Mohammed is the messenger of God.” Allah is the Arabic name for God, just as Yahweh is the Hebrew name for God used in the Old Testament. To become a Muslim, one need only make this simple proclamation.

The first part of this proclamation affirms Islam’s absolute monotheism, the uncompromising belief in the oneness or unity of God, as well as the doctrine that association of anything else with God is idolatry and the one unforgivable sin (Quran 4:48).

The second part of the confession of faith asserts that Mohammed (PBUH) is not only a prophet but also a messenger of God, a higher role also played by Moses and Jesus before him. For Muslims, Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) is the vehicle for the last and final revelation. In accepting Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) as the “seal of the prophets,” they believe that his prophecy confirms and completes all of the revealed messages, beginning with Adam’s.

  1. The second Pillar of Islam is Prayer (salat). Muslims pray (or, perhaps more correctly, worship) five times throughout the day: at daybreak, noon, mid-afternoon, sunset, and evening. In many Muslim countries, reminders to pray, or “calls to prayer” echo out across the rooftops:

God is most great [Allahu Akbar], God is most great, God is most great, God is most great, I witness that there is no god but God [Allah]; I witness that there is no god but God. I witness that Mohammed is the messenger of God. I witness that Mohammed is the messenger of God. Come to prayer; come to prayer! Come to prosperity; come to prosperity! God is most great. God is most great. There is no god but God.

These reminders throughout the day help to keep believers mindful of God in the midst of everyday concerns about work and family with all their attractions and distractions.

The prayers consist of recitations from the Holy Quran in Arabic and glorification of God. These are accompanied by a sequence of movements: standing, bowing, kneeling, touching the ground with one’s forehead, and sitting. Muslims can pray in any clean environment, alone or together, in a mosque or at home, at work or on the road, indoors or out. As they prepare to pray, Muslims face Makkah, the holy city that houses the Kaaba (the house of God believed to have been built by Abraham and his son Ismail).

  1. The third Pillar of Islam is called the Zakat, which means “purification.” Like prayer, which is both an individual and communal responsibility, zakat expresses a Muslim’s worship of and thanksgiving to God by supporting the poor. It requires an annual contribution of 2.5 per cent of an individual’s wealth and assets, not merely a percentage of annual income. In Islam, the true owner of things is not man but God. People are given their wealth as a trust from God. Therefore, zakat is not viewed as “charity”; it is an obligation for those who have received their wealth from God to respond to the needs of less fortunate members of the community: the poor, orphans, and widows, to free slaves and debtors, and to support those working in the “cause of God” (e.g., construction of mosques, religious schools, and hospitals, etc.).

  2. The fourth Pillar of Islam, the Fast of Ramadan, occurs once each year during the month of Ramadan, the ninth month of the Islamic calendar and the month in which the first revelation of the Holy Quran came to Mohammed (PBUH). During this month-long fast, Muslims whose health permits must abstain from dawn to sunset from food, drink, and sexual activity. Fasting is a practice common to many religions. In Islam the discipline of the Ramadan fast is intended to stimulate reflection on human frailty and dependence upon God, focus on spiritual goals and values, and identification with and response to the less fortunate.

At dusk the fast is broken with a light meal referred to as iftar. Families and friends share a special late evening meal together, often including special foods and sweets served only at this time of the year. Many go to the mosque for the evening prayer, followed by special prayers recited only during Ramadan. Families rise before sunrise to take their first meal of the day, which must sustain them until sunset.

Near the end of Ramadan (the twenty-seventh day) Muslims commemorate Laylat Al Qadr when Mohammed (PBUH) first received God’s revelation. The month of Ramadan ends with one of the two major Islamic celebrations, the Feast of the Breaking of the Fast, called Eid Al Fitr, which resembles Christmas in its spirit of joyfulness, special celebrations, and gift giving.

  1. The fifth Pillar is the Pilgrimage or Hajj to Makkah in Saudi Arabia. At least once in his or her lifetime, every adult Muslim who is physically and financially able is required to make the sacrifice of time, possessions, status, and normal comforts necessary to make this pilgrimage, becoming a pilgrim totally at God’s service. The pilgrimage season follows Ramadan. Every year over two million believers representing a tremendous diversity of cultures and languages travel from all over the world to the holy city of Makkah to form one community living their faith. In addition to the hajj there is a devotional ritual that is referred to as the “lesser pilgrimage.” It is called the umrah (visitation) and involves visiting the holy sites at other times of the year. Many who are on pilgrimage also perform the umrah rituals before, during, or after the hajj. However, performing the umrah does not fulfill the hajj obligation.
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What do Muslims do on the pilgrimage to Makkah?

Those who participate in the pilgrimage wear simple garments, two seamless white cloths for men and an outfit that entirely covers the body, except face and hands, for women. These coverings symbolise purity as well as the unity and equality of all believers.

As the pilgrims approach Makkah they shout "I am here, O Lord, I am here!" When they enter Makkah their first obligation is to go to the Kaaba, which is located inside the compound of the Grand Mosque. The crowds of pilgrims move counterclockwise around the Kaaba seven times. This circumambulation, like prayer, symbolises the believer's entry into the divine presence. In the days that follow, pilgrims participate in a variety of ritual actions and ceremonies symbolising key religious events. They walk and sometimes run along a quarter-mile corridor of the Grand Mosque seven times to commemorate Hagar's frantic search in the desert for water for her son Ismail. This rite symbolises humankind's ongoing effort, movement, and struggle through life, expressing a believer's persistence in life's struggle for survival.

The pilgrims assemble for a day at Arafat, a vast, empty plain, in commemoration of the final pilgrimage of Prophet Mohammed (PBUH), who delivered his farewell sermon to his people from the Mount of Mercy, a hill in the middle of the plain. They symbolically reject the devil, the source of all evil, by throwing stones at three pillars that stand at the site where Satan met Abraham and Ismail and tempted them to disobey God when Abraham was preparing to sacrifice his son in obedience to God's command.

What do Muslims believe about Mary and Jesus?

Mary, the mother of Jesus, is a prominent figure in Islam and the only woman mentioned by name in the Holy Quran. The Holy Quran upholds Mary as one of the four perfect examples of womanhood (66:12). An entire chapter, Surah 19, is dedicated to her and her history. Mary is mentioned more times in the Holy Quran than in the entire New Testament, and more biographical information about her is contained in the Holy Quran than in the New Testament.

Jesus is an important figure in the Holy Quran, which affirms the truth of the teachings of Jesus as found in the Gospels. Like Christians, Muslims believe in the virgin conception of Jesus by God's Spirit. The Holy Quran also records some of Jesus' miracles, including giving sight to the blind, healing lepers, raising the dead, and breathing life into clay birds (5:110). This last miracle is not recorded in the canonical New Testament but does appear in the non-canonical Gospel of Thomas.

Muslim and Christian beliefs about Jesus differ in two areas. First, although Muslims believe in the virgin conception and birth of Jesus through an act of God's Spirit, they do not believe that Jesus is the Son of God. They believe that he is one of the long line of righteous prophets and second only to Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) in importance (6:83–87). For Muslims, the Christian doctrine of the Trinity represents a form of polytheism, proclaiming belief in three gods rather than one God alone (4:171, 5:17, 5:72–77).

Second, Muslims do not believe in the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus (4:157–58). They believe that, although it appeared that Jesus was crucified, instead God took Jesus to Himself in a manner similar to what happened to Elijah (3:55, 4:157–589). Muslims do not believe in the Christian doctrine of Original Sin, so there is no theological need for the all-atoning sacrifice of Jesus through his crucifixion and resurrection.

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Do Muslims have a Sabbath like Jews and Christians?

Friday is the Muslim day of congregational worship. It was not traditionally considered a day of rest, but in some Muslim countries today Friday has replaced the Sunday holiday, which was instituted by colonial powers and therefore often seen as a Western, Christian legacy. In both Muslim and Western countries, congregational prayer (juma) in a mosque takes place at noon on Friday.

Do Muslims have religious holidays or holy-days?

Muslims celebrate two great Islamic holidays. The first is Eid Al Fitr, the Feast of the Breaking of the Fast of Ramadan, whose celebration extends for three days. The second holiday, which is the greater of the two, occurs two and a half months after the first and extends for four days.

This is the Eid Al Adha, the Feast of Sacrifice, which marks the annual completion of the pilgrimage to Makkah (hajj). These holidays represent a religious obligation for Muslims as well as a social celebration. Traditionally both Eids are occasions for exchanging visits with relatives and friends. As at Christmas celebrations, gifts of money or new clothes are given to children, and special sweets and other foods are served to family and guests.

In many contexts other religious holidays are celebrated, such as the birth of the Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) and, in Shii Islam, the birth of Ali and the Imams. Shii annually commemorate the "passion" of Hussein during a 10-day period of remembering, ritually re-enacting, and mourning the last stand of the Imam Hussein and his followers against the army of the caliph.

Does Islam have a clergy?

Islam does not have an ordained clergy or representatives of a church hierarchy in the way that Christianity does. Any Muslim can lead the prayer or officiate at a wedding or burial. However, historically certain functions came to be filled by a class that took on distinctive forms of dress and authority that are clergy-like. A variety of roles have come to be played by religious scholars and leaders.

Every mosque has an imam, the one who "stands in front" to lead the prayer and delivers the Friday sermon. Larger communities have a full-time imam, the chief official who performs the many functions that a priest or rabbi might perform: leading a ritual prayer, administering the mosque or Islamic center or school as well as community activities.

Scholars of the Holy Quran, Islamic law, and theology (who are called ulama, meaning "the learned") came to represent a permanent class of religious scholars often distinguished in society by their form of dress. They claimed a primary role as the protectors and authoritative interpreters of Islam. Many titles exist for Islamic religious scholars, reflecting their functions in interpreting Islam. Among the ulama, mujtahid is a special title for one who is qualified to interpret Islamic Law (using ijtihad, or independent reasoning). A mufti is a specialist in Islamic law competent to deliver a fatwa, a legal interpretation or judgment.

What is a mosque?

The word mosque comes from the Arabic word masjid (place for ritual prostration). Unlike churches or synagogues with their rows of benches or pews, the mosque's main prayer area is a large open space, the expansive floors adorned with oriental carpets. An important feature of the prayer area is the mihrab, an ornamental arched niche set into the wall, which indicates the direction of Makkah (which Muslims always face when praying). Next to the mihrab is the minbar, a raised wooden platform (similar to a pulpit) modelled after the one that the Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) ascended to give his sermons to the community. Because of the need for cleansing prior to prayer, most mosques have a spot set aside for performing ablutions away from the main prayer area.

Mosques have served as places for prayer, meditation, and learning as well as focal points for the religious and the social life of the Muslim community throughout its history.

Professor John L. Esposito is University Professor Religion and International Affairs and Founding Director of the Centre for Muslim-Christian Understanding, Walsh School for Foreign Service, Georgetown University. Among his more than 25 books, is What Everyone Should Know about Islam, on which this series is based, The Oxford Dictionary of Islam and Unholy War: terror in the Name of Islam.