Review Essay
Can Pakistan Work?
A Country in Search of Itself
By Pervez Hoodbhoy (A Pakistani-not an Afghani or Indian, or Jew)
The Idea of Pakistan. by Stephen Philip
Cohen. Washington: Brookings
Institution Press, 2004, 367 pp. $32.95.
When he founded Pakistan in 1947,Muhammad Ali Jinnah—an impeccably
dressed Westernized Muslim with Victorian manners and a secular
outlook—promised the subcontinent’s Muslims that they would finally
be able to fulfill their cultural and civilizational destiny.
Although the new nation arose from a bloodbath of ethnic cleansing
and sectarian violence, and its fundamental premise was that Hindus
and Muslims could never live together, its early years nevertheless
held some promise of a liberal, relatively secular polity. But with
time, Jinnah’s Pakistan has grown weaker, more authoritarian, and
increasingly theocratic. Now set to become the world’s fourth most
populous nation, it is all of several things: a client state of the
United States yet deeply resentful of it; a breeding ground for jihad
and al Qaeda as well as a key U.S. ally in the fight against
international terrorism; an economy and society run for the benefit
of Pakistan’s warrior class, yet with a relatively free and feisty
press; a country where education and science refuse to flourish but
which is nevertheless a declared nuclear power; and an inward-looking
society that is manifestly intolerant of minorities but that has
never seen anything like the state-organized pogroms of India,
Afghanistan, Iran, or China.
In The Idea of Pakistan, Stephen Philip Cohen sets out to understand
this enigma of modern history. Cohen is the United
States’ leading analyst of South Asia, and this authoritative work of
broad scope and meticulous research will surely become
required reading on Pakistan. It also provides a view from the heart
of the American empire, an analysis of how Washington
can best advance its interests in South Asia. Cohen’s facts are
indisputable, his logic cold and clear, and his omissions deliberate
and meaningful.
Ominous declarations of imminent chaos in Pakistan abound in the
United States. Cohen aims both to raise warnings
and to soothe fears. Although he acknowledges that profound problems
plague both the idea and the reality of Pakistan, he
distances himself from apocalyptic “failed state” scenarios.
Catastrophic failure of this nuclear-armed state is surely a
possibility. But Pakistan’s fate will ultimately depend on whether
its leaders can find an answer to the fundamental question that has
plagued their fellow citizens for more than half a century: “How can
we make the idea of Pakistan actually work?”
AN ARMY WITH A COUNTRY
According to a popular but rather humorless Pakistani joke, “all
countries have armies, but here, an army has a country.”
Indeed, even when civilian governments have nominally been in charge
in Pakistan, there has never been much doubt about
who actually makes decisions there. In addition to holding political
power, the Pakistani army controls vast commercial
and industrial interests and owns massive rural and urban properties.
As Cohen remarks, “regardless of what may be desirable,
the army will continue to set the limits on what is possible in
Pakistan.” General Pervez Musharraf, the country’s
current chief executive, seized power in a bloodless coup in 1999,
and there have since been several attempts on his life.
After each, the media has warned of a nuclear state careening out of
control, with radical Islamists fighting to get into
the driver’s seat. Cohen rightly dismisses this view as alarmist. If
the general were killed, the army establishment would
quickly replace Musharraf with another senior officer, and various
measures—the installation of former Citibank executive
Shaukat Aziz as prime minister, most notably—have recently been
undertaken to protect against a leadership crisis.
Cohen also breaks with Musharraf 's staunchest international backers,
who “see him as a wise and modern leader, a
secular man who is not afraid to support the West or to offer peace
to India, and a man who can hold back the onrush of
demagogues and Islamic extremists.” Cohen notes that “no serious
Pakistani analyst sees Musharraf in these terms. …
If he resembles any past Pakistani leader, it is General Yahya Khan—
also a well-intentioned general who did the United
States a great favor.”
The question of why the warrior class was never tamed by civilian
rule points back to the founding of the Pakistani
state. As the respected Pakistani scholar Eqbal Ahmad has emphasized,
the civilian system of power was never regarded
by Pakistan’s citizens as just, appropriate, or authoritative. And
despite Jinnah’s declarations, the idea of Pakistan was
unclear from the start. Lacking any clear basis for legitimacy or
direction, the state quickly aligned with the powerful landed class:
the army leadership and the economic elite joined forces to claim
authority in a nation without definition or cohesion. In subsequent
years, the government maintained the feudal structure of society and
entered into a manifestly exploitative relationship with Pakistan’s
poor eastern wing (which became Bangladesh in 1971 after a short but
bloody war). Even now, bonded labor is common, and many peasants live
in conditions close to slavery. Politicians, with the exception of
the mercurial demagogue Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, have made no attempt at
reform, ignoring the hearts and minds of the masses in
favor of cultivating elite favor and pursuing quick financial gain.
The result has been ideological confusion, civilian helplessness, and
an environment eminently hospitable to putsches. Indeed, no elected
government has completed its term in Pakistan’s 57-year history.
Pakistani generals express contempt for the civilian order and
steadfastly hold that “what is good for the army is good for
Pakistan,” and Pakistani society is thoroughly militarized. Bumper
stickers read, “The Finest Men Join the Pakistan Army”; tanks parade
on the streets of Islamabad while jet aircraft screech overhead;
discarded naval guns, artillery pieces, and fighter aircraft adorn
public plazas. It is even a criminal offense to “criticize the armed
forces of Pakistan or to bring them into disaffection.”
The military is only one (albeit the most important) component of the
wider “establishment” that runs Pakistan. Cohen calls this
establishment a “moderate oligarchy” and defines it as “an informal
political system that [ties] together the senior ranks of the
military, the civil service, key members of the judiciary, and other
elites.” Membership in this oligarchy, Cohen contends, requires
adherence to a common set of beliefs: that India must be countered at
every turn; that nuclear
weapons have endowed Pakistan with security and status; that the
fight for Kashmir is unfinished business from the time of partition;
that large-scale social reforms such as land redistribution are
unacceptable; that the uneducated and illiterate masses deserve only
contempt; that vociferous Muslim nationalism is desirable but true
Islamism is not; and that Washington is to be despised but fully
taken advantage of. Underlying these “core principles,” one might
add, is a willingness to serve power at any cost…