A Century of U.S. Military Interventions

Society Pakistan & World Affairs
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The following is a partial list of 130 U.S. military interventions from 1890 to 1999:

Taken from: http://www.internationalanswer.org/resources.html
.pdf version: http://www.internationalanswer.org/pdf/usmilitaryinterventions.pdf

SOUTH DAKOTA, 1890 (-?) Troops. 300 Lakota Indians massacred at Wounded Knee.
ARGENTINA, 1890 - Troops. Buenos Aires interests protected.
CHILE, 1891 - Troops. Marines clash with nationalist rebels.
HAITI, 1891 - Troops. Black workers revolt on U.S.-claimed Navassa Island defeated.
IDAHO, 1892 - Troops. Army suppresses silver miners’ strike.
HAWAII, 1893 (-?) - Naval, troops. Independent kingdom overthrown, annexed.
CHICAGO, 1894 - Troops. Breaking of rail strike, 34 killed.
NICARAGUA, 1894 - Troops. Month-long occupation of Bluefields.
CHINA, 1894-95 - Naval, troops. Marines land in Sino-Japanese War.
KOREA, 1894-96 - Troops/ Marines kept in Seoul during war.
PANAMA, 1895 - Troops, naval/ Marines land in Colombian province.
NICARAGUA, 1896 - Troops/ Marines land in port of Corinto.
CHINA, 1989-1900 - Troops/ Boxer Rebellion fought by foreign armies.
PHILIPPINES, 1898-1910(-?) Naval, troops. Seized from Spain, killed 600,000 Filipinos.
CUBA, 1898-1902(-?) Naval, troops/ Seized from Spain, still hold Navy base.
PUERTO RICO, 1898(-?) Naval, troops/ Seized from Spain, occupation continues.
GUAM, 1898(-?) Naval, troops/ Seized from Spain, still use as base.
MINNESOTA, 1898(-?) Troops/ Army battles Chippewa at Leech Lake.
NICARAGUA, 1898 - Troops / Marines land at port of San Juan del Sur.
SAMOA, 1899(-?) Troops/ Battle over succession to throne.
NICARAGUA, 1899 - Troops/ Marines land at port of Bluefields.
IDAHO, 1899-1901 - Troops / Army occupies C?ur d’Alene mining region.
OKLAHOMA, 1901 - Troops/ Army battles Creek Indian revolt.
PANAMA, 1901-14 - Naval, troops/ Broke off from Colombia 1903, annexed Canal Zone 1914-99.
HONDURAS, 1903 - Troops/ Marines intervene in revolution.
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, 1903-04 - Troops. U.S. interests protected in Revolution.
KOREA, 1904-05 - Troops/ Marines land in Russo-Japanese War.
CUBA, 1906-09 - Troops/ Marines land in democratic election.
NICARAGUA, 1907 - Troops/ ‘Dollar Diplomacy’ protectorate set up.
HONDURAS, 1907 - Troops/ Marines land during war with Nicaragua.
PANAMA, 1908 - Troops / Marines intervene in election contest.
NICARAGUA, 1910 - Troops / Marines land in Bluefields and Corinto.
HONDURAS, 1911 - Troops/ U.S. interests protected in civil war.
CUBA, 1912 - Troops/ U.S. interests protected in Havana.
PANAMA, 1912 - Troops/ Marines land during heated election.
HONDURAS, 1912 - Troops/ Marines protect U.S. economic interests.
NICARAGUA, 1912-33 - Troops, bombing/ 20-year occupation, fought guerrillas.
MEXICO, 1913 - Naval/ Americans evacuated during revolution.
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, 1914 - Naval/ Fight with rebels over Santo Domingo.
COLORADO, 1914 - Troops/ Breaking of miners’ strike by Army.
MEXICO, 1914-18 - Naval, troops/ Series of interventions against nationalists.
HAITI, 1914-34 - Troops, bombing/ 19-year occupation after revolts.
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, 1916-24 - Troops. 8-year Marine occupation.
CUBA, 1917-33 - Troops. Military occupation, economic protectorate.
WORLD WAR I, 1917-18 - Naval, troops/ Ships sunk, fought Germany.
RUSSIA, 1918-22 - Naval, troops. Five landings to fight Bolsheviks.
PANAMA, 1918-20 - Troops. ‘Police duty’ during unrest after elections.
YUGOSLAVIA, 1919 - Troops. Marines intervene for Italy against Serbs in Dalmatia.
HONDURAS, 1919 - Troops. Marines land during election campaign.
GUATEMALA, 1920 - Troops. 2-week intervention against unionists.
WEST VIRGINIA, 1920-21 - Troops, bombing. Army intervenes against mineworkers.
TURKEY, 1922 - Troops. Fought nationalists in Smyrna (Izmir).
CHINA, 1922-27 - Naval, troops/ Deployment during nationalist revolt.
HONDURAS, 1924-25/ Troops/ Landed twice during election strife.
PANAMA, 1925 - Troops / Marines suppress general strike.
CHINA, 1927-34/ Troops/ Marines stationed throughout the country.
EL SALVADOR, 1932/ Naval/ Warships sent during Faribundo Marti revolt.
WASHINGTON DC, 1932/ Troops/ Army stops WWI vet bonus protest.
WORLD WAR II, 1941-45/ Naval,troops, bombing, nuclear/ Fought Axis for 3 years; 1st nuclear war.
DETROIT, 1943/ Troops/ Army puts down Black rebellion.
IRAN, 1946/ Nuclear threat/ Soviet troops told to leave north (Iranian Azerbaijan).
YUGOSLAVIA, 1946/ Naval/ Response to shooting-down of U.S.plane.
URUGUAY, 1947/ Nuclear threat/ Bombers deployed as show of strength.
GREECE, 1947-49/ Command operation/ U.S. directs extreme-right in civil war.
CHINA, 1948-49/ Troops/ Marines evacuate Americans before Communist victory.
GERMANY, 1948/ Nuclear threat/ Atomic-capable bombers guard Berlin Airlift.
PHILIPPINES, 1948-54/ Command operation/ CIA directs war against Huk Rebellion.

Continued…

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PUERTO RICO, 1950/ Troops, naval, bombing, nuclear threats/ Independence rebellion crushed in Ponce.
KOREA, 1951-53(-?)/ U.S.& South Korea fight China & North Korea to stalemate; A bomb threat in 1950, & vs. China in 1953. Still have bases.
IRAN, 1953/ Command operation/ CIA overthrows democracy, installs Shah.
VIETNAM, 1954/ Nuclear threat/ Bombs offered to French to use against siege.
GUATEMALA, 1954/ Command operation, bombing, nuclear threat/ CIA directs exile invasion after new gov't nationalizes U.S. company lands; bombers based in Nicaragua.
EGYPT, 1956/ Nuclear threat, troops/ Soviets told to keep out of Suez crisis; Marines evacuate foreigners
LEBANON, 1958/ Troops, naval/ Marine occupation against rebels
IRAQ, 1958/ Nuclear threat/ Iraq warned against invading Kuwait.
CHINA, 1958/ Nuclear threat/ China told not to move on Taiwan isles.
PANAMA, 1958/ Troops/ Flag protests erupt into confrontation.
VIETNAM, 1960-75/ Troops, naval, bombing, nuclear threats/ Fought South Vietnam revolt & North Vietnam; 1-2 million killed in longest U.S. war; atomic bomb threats in 1968 and 1969.
CUBA, 1961/ Command operation/ CIA-directed exile invasion fails.
GERMANY, 1961/ Nuclear threat/ Alert during Berlin Wall crisis.
CUBA, 1962/ Nuclear threat/ Naval Blockade during missile crisis; near-war with USSR.
LAOS, 1962/ Command operation/ Military buildup during guerrilla war.
PANAMA, 1964/ Troops/ Panamanians shot for urging canal's return.
INDONESIA, 1965/ Command operation/ Million killed in CIA-assisted army coup.
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, 1965-66/ Troops, bombing/ Marines land during election campaign.
GUATEMALA, 1966-67/ Command operation/ Green Berets intervene against rebels.
DETROIT, 1967/ Troops/ Army battles Blacks, 43 killed.
UNITED STATES, 1968/ Troops/ After King is shot; over 21,000 soldiers in cities.
CAMBODIA, 1969-75/ Bombing, troops, naval/ Up to 2 million killed in decade of bombing, starvation, and political chaos.
OMAN, 1970/ Command operation/ U.S. directs Iranian marine invasion.
LAOS, 1971-73/ Command operation, bombing
U.S. directs South Vietnamese invasion; 'carpet-bombs' countryside.
SOUTH DAKOTA, 1973/ Command operation/ Army directs Wounded Knee siege of Lakotas.
MIDEAST, 1973/ Nuclear threat/ World-wide alert during Mideast War.
CHILE, 1973/ Command operation/ CIA-backed coup ousts elected marxist president.
CAMBODIA, 1975/ Troops, bombing Gas
captured ship, 28 die in copter crash.
ANGOLA, 1976-92/ Command operation/ CIA assists South African-backed rebels.
IRAN, 1980/ Troops, nuclear threat, aborted bombing/ 8 troops die in plane crash. Soviets warned not to get involved in revolution.
LIBYA, 1981/ Naval jets/ Two Libyan jets shot down in maneuvers.
EL SALVADOR, 1981-92/ Command operation, troops, advisors/ Overflights aid anti-rebel war, soldiers briefly involved in hostage clash.
NICARAGUA, 1981-90/ Command operation, naval/ CIA directs exile (Contra) invasions, plants harbor mines against revolution.
LEBANON, 1982-84/ Naval, bombing, troops/ Marines expel PLO and back Phalangists, Navy bombs and shells Muslim and Syrian positions.
HONDURAS, 1983-89 - Troops. Maneuvers help build bases near borders.
GRENADA, 1983-84 - Troops, bombing. Invasion four years after revolution.
IRAN, 1984 - Jets. Two Iranian jets shot down over Persian Gulf.
LIBYA, 1986 - Bombing, naval. Air strikes to topple nationalist gov't.
BOLIVIA, 1986 - Troops. Army assists raids on cocaine region.
IRAN, 1987-88 - Naval, bombing. US intervenes on side of Iraq in war.
LIBYA, 1989 - Naval jets. Two Libyan jets shot down.
VIRGIN ISLANDS, 1989 - Troops. St. Croix Black unrest after storm.
PHILIPPINES, 1989 - Jets. Air cover provided for government against coup.
PANAMA, 1989-90 - Troops, bombing. Nationalist government ousted by 27,000 soldiers, leaders arrested, 2000+ killed.
LIBERIA, 1990 - Troops. Foreigners evacuated during civil war.
SAUDI ARABIA, 1990-91 - Troops, jets. Iraq countered after invading Kuwait; 540,000 troops also stationed in Oman, Qatar, Bahrain, UAE, Israel.
IRAQ, 1990-? Bombing, troops, naval. Blockade, air strikes; 200,000+ killed in invasion of Iraq; no-fly zone, large-scale destruction of Iraqi military.
KUWAIT, 1991 - Naval, bombing, troops. Kuwait royal family returned to throne.
LOS ANGELES, 1992 - Troops. Army, Marines deployed against anti-police uprising.
SOMALIA, 1992-94 - Troops, naval, bombing. U.S.-led United Nations occupation during civil war; raids against one Mogadishu faction.
YUGOSLAVIA, 1992-94 - Naval. NATO blockade of Serbia and Montenegro.
BOSNIA, 1993-95 - Jets. bombing. No-fly zone patrolled in civil war; downed jets, bombed Serbs.
HAITI, 1994-96 - Troops, naval. Blockade against military government; troops restore President Aristide to office three years after coup.
CROATIA, 1995 - Bombing. Krajina Serb airfields attacked before Croatian offensive.
ZAIRE (CONGO), 1996-97 - Troops. Marines at Rwandan Hutu refuge camps, in area where Congo revolution begins.
LIBERIA, 1997 - Troops. Soldiers under fire during evacuation of foreigners.
ALBANIA, 1997 - Troops. Soldiers under fire during evacuation of foreigners.
SUDAN, 1998 - Missiles. Attack on pharmaceutical plant alleged to be 'terrorist' nerve gas plant.
AFGHANISTAN, 1998 - Missiles. Attack on former CIA training camps used by Islamic fundamentalist groups alleged to have attacked embassies.
IRAQ, 1998-?/ Bombing, Missiles. Four days of intensive air strikes after weapons inspectors allege Iraqi obstructions.
YUGOSLAVIA, 1999 - ? Bombing, Missiles. NATO air strikes after Serbia declines to withdraw from Kosovo. NATO occupation of Kosovo.

This compilation was revised on March 23, 1999. For more information or with comments and additions please contact: Zoltan Grossman, 1705 Rutledge, Madison, WI 53704 Phone Fax: (608)246-2256. [email protected]

This is a partial list of U.S. military interventions from 1890 to 1999. This guide does NOT include demonstration duty by military police, mobilizations of the National Guard, offshore shows of naval strength, reinforcements of embassy personnel, the use of non-Defense Department personnel (such as the Drug Enforcement Agency), military exercises, non-combat mobilizations (such as replacing postal strikers), the permanent stationing of armed forces, covert actions where the U.S. did not play a command and control role, the use of small hostage rescue units, most uses of proxy troops, U.S. piloting of foreign warplanes, foreign disaster assistance, military training and advisory programs not involving direct combat, civic action programs, and many other military activities.

Among sources used, besides news reports, are the Congressional Record (23 June 1969), 180 landings by the U.S. Marine Corps History Division, Ege & Makhijani in Counterspy (July-Aug. 1982), and Daniel Ellsberg in Protest & Survive. 'Instances of Use of United States Forces Abroad, 1798-1993' by Ellen C. Collier of the Library of Congress Congressional Research Service.

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:eek:

:nook:

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Ill leave this here for your reading pleasure :smiley:
Source: US Naval War College
The Top 100 Rules of the New American Way of War
By Dr. Thomas P. M. Barnett and Dr. Henry H. Gaffney Jr.

**THE PATHS TO WAR
The United States Stands Ready for Any Type of War **

  1. The U. S. military stays ready because it understands that while the world is full of ongoing situations in which it remains involved, it must be prepared for any acts of war
    against the United States that come “out of the blue.”

  2. U. S. forces believe in constant training, both to facilitate their command of their complex war-making system and to deal with a wide variety of circumstances.

  3. Because the United States must move forces long distances to fight, it does extensive contingency planning to conquer the time and distance factors.

Whom the United States Fights in Wars
4. The United States wages war on states or nonstate actors that attack or threaten to attack the U. S. homeland.

  1. The United States wages war on states or nonstate actors that attack U. S. military forces or other instruments of the government; because the United States is the de facto
    global cop, any such attack is perceived as an attack on global stability itself.

  2. If all other measures fail, the United States reserves the right to bring war preemptively to states or nonstate actors that actively seek to acquire weapons of mass destruction for
    use against the United States or any of its allies.

  3. The United States wages war on states that harbor or actively support terrorist groups with transnational objectives and reach, and this war encompasses all elements of U. S.
    national power.

  4. Maintaining a commitment to global stability, the United States wages war on states or nonstate actors that threaten or launch wars against our key allies, including other North
    Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) countries, Saudi Arabia and other Gulf states, Israel, Taiwan, South Korea, Japan, Australia, and others. 1

**Where the United States Is Ready to Fight Wars **
9. The United States is prepared to intervene within the western hemisphere, and especially in the Caribbean and Central American areas, because this is its neighborhood.

  1. The United States is ready to defend against aggression in Europe because this was the source of the worst wars of the past and because NATO is its strongest and oldest
    security alliance.

  2. The United States is ready to wage war in Southwest Asia, particularly in the Persian Gulf region, where it is the only power capable of stabilizing the area— thus ensuring the
    continuing flow of energy out of the region.

  3. In strong alliance with Japan, the United States is prepared to deter or defeat a Chinese invasion of Taiwan and a North Korean attack on South Korea.

  4. Beyond these cases, the United States is ready to go anywhere to combat terrorist groups that are part of a global organization and plot.

**What Triggers the United States to Go to War **
14. The United States retaliates automatically to any direct attack against its homeland, although this may not be instantaneous in the case of a terrorist attack because a nonstate
actor’s identity and home base may not immediately be clear.

  1. Other than in response to direct attacks on the United States, there currently are five situations where the United States reflexively would engage in war:
    · If Iraq were to attack Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, or Israel · If China were to attack Taiwan
    · If North Korea were to attack South Korea · If Iran or Iraq were to attempt to close the Persian Gulf to oil traffic
    · If al Qaeda or any successor terrorist group attacks U. S. citizens, forces, or property anywhere in the world.

  2. Outside of those circumstances, any overt U. S. war effort will follow an extensive debate within the U. S. and international political system, with the critical questions
    being:
    · How much congressional and public debate? · How much U. N. consultation/ approval?
    · What level of allied consultation and contributions?

  3. The United States pursues covert operations as part of the global war on terrorism in accordance with presidential findings. 2

**U. S. Goals in the Conduct of War **
18. Beyond preserving or restoring national security, the fundamental U. S. goal is sustaining global norms against the aggressive use of force, meaning U. S. actions are limited to those states or actors that transgress these rule sets.

  1. Beyond that, U. S. interventions are meant to ensure aggression does not reoccur by supporting the institution of the rule of law and democracy.

  2. In waging war, the United States seeks to protect the functioning of the global economy as necessary, since trade can flourish only under conditions of peace and freedom under law.

  3. In any conflict, the United States seeks to limit its own absolute losses, so as not to damage the American public’s support both for the intervention in question and for this
    nation’s long-term involvement in international security.

  4. The United States seeks to limit collateral damage, thus to limit foreign resentment concerning the use of U. S. military force and to set the stage for restoration of economies
    and government once the conflict has ended.

Whose Help the United States Seeks in War
23. The United States seeks as much approval, cooperation, and mutual agreement as possible from the global community for any conflict it responds to or initiates, because it wants all such actions to further the advance of collective security.

  1. When practicable, the United States seeks approval and sanctio n in the U. N. forum, but reserves the right to act unilaterally or to organize a “coalition of the willing” if such
    consensus cannot be found.

  2. As appropriate, the United States seeks the aid and agreement of the other NATO countries (especially the United Kingdom) because they are its closest allies and can
    provide forces most able to join U. S. efforts.

**THE CONDUCT OF WAR **
How the United States Commands in War 3
26. U. S. political control is direct and detailed at the start and conclusion of any war, and is coordinated with diplomatic actions.

  1. The Unified Combatant Commander plans operations in detail.

  2. The Unified Combatant Commander manages relations with involved coalition partners.

  3. Combined Joint Task Forces closer to the action execute the plans, while keeping the Unified Combatant Commander fully informed.

  4. As one specialized command, a Joint Forces Air Control Center or Combined Air Operations Center is set up to manage all air assets.

  5. The common operational picture, compiled from extensively networked data and information flows, is available to every command element in the chain.

What the United States Mobilizes and Takes to Any War

  1. Any war the United States wages involves all elements of national power, meaning the United States works to defeat its enemy in every way possible:
    · Destroying their ability to wage war · Isolating them from potential allies
    · Denying them resources
    · Denying them the sympathy of others.

  2. The United States establishes logistical lines of communication because— aside from homeland defense— all operations are “overseas,” and for the most part not likely to be
    where U. S. forces are stationed permanently. Thus the United States maintains and obtains airlift and sealift to get equipment, personnel, and supplies to the theater in
    sufficient time and quantities.

  3. Relying heavily on space assets, the United States mobilizes a global information grid to achieve information dominance before a single shot is fired.

  4. The United States brings as much firepower of the joint forces to bear as possible, supported by intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance within a comprehensive
    command-and-control system so it can be applied as precisely as possible.

  5. To preserve personnel, the United States mobilizes the world’s preeminent combat medical system.

**How the United States Gets to War **
37. Because the United States maintains the world’s only global blue-water navy, most U. S. forces and supplies go safely by sea.

  1. If speed is required, or if the United States wishes to strike directly from the continental United States, other remote bases, or the sea, it can deliver much force by
    strategic airlift or long-range strike aircraft, using midair refueling.

  2. The United States prepositions equipme nt and supplies both on ships and on allies’ territories for easy breakout and rapid deployment of personnel.

  3. The United States uses established overseas bases, establishes new bases in adjacent countries that are supportive, or establishes lodgments in remote areas of hostile
    territories.

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*What Forces the United States Brings to War *
41. The United States is ready to draw on all five services as needed for any particular war.
42. The United States brings overwhelming force to bear before joining a conflict, not committing forces piecemeal.
43. The United States seeks to overwhelm the opponent with joint firepower, and endeavors to keep the ground forces' "footprint" as economical as possible.
44. The United States operates air assets from both adjacent bases on allied territory and carriers in adjacent seas, as well as distant, over-the-horizon bases and even the
continental United States, taking full advantage of its midair refueling assets.
45. The United States uses Special Forces— including Central Intelligence Agency paramilitaries— for special up-front and follow-on tasks, and for guiding precision
munitions from on-the-ground locations.
46. Whenever interagency collaboration makes sense, those additional civilian personnel are brought along, rather than the military trying to replicate their capabilities.

*How the United States Fights *
47. The underlying principle for employing regular forces is the United States' desire to keep the conflict "over there" as much as possible; retaliation against terrorist attacks on
the U. S. homeland is an "away game."
48. The United States aims for rapid dominance of any battlefield it may enter, so the initial blows come from the air:
· First, the United States suppresses air defenses, including airfields
· Next, it hits strategic targets like command and control · Then, it breaks the logistic connections to the deployed enemy forces
· Finally, it directs air strikes against opposing ground forces.
49. The United States uses ground forces to roll up enemy ground forces that have been softened by air attacks and to occupy territory.

  1. Leveraging its space assets, the United States possesses and keeps expanding an unparalleled capacity to wage network-centric warfare: · It drives up the enemy's information requirements and then degrades its ability to meet them · It achieves as much transparency over the battlefield as possible for U. S. forces, then leverages that advantage to destroy enemy forces, equipment, and installations.

  2. U. S. forces maneuver rapidly to avoid static "front lines," turning each engagement into an ambush across a "noncontiguous" battlefield.

  3. Because no potential foe matches well, the United States expects opponents to defend themselves with dispersal and concealment, to seek destruction of high-value U. S. assets,
    to use chemical or biological weapons, and to seek sanctuary in both urban and remote environments; therefore the United States increasingly anticipates and prepares for those
    tactics and develops capabilities for combat in those venues.

*How U. S. Forces Defend Themselves in War *
53. If the United States has evidence that a potential foe possesses both the where-withal and the intention of employing weapons of mass destruction, it reserves the right to
engage in preemptive strikes against that capability.
54. In any conflict, the U. S. military seeks to defeat its enemy in the field while simultaneously waging a three-front defensive strategy:
· Preserving its forces in-theater through mobility, range and stealth · Defending U. S. military and diplomatic installations around the world through vigilance · Protecting the homeland from retaliatory strikes by preventing their launching at the source.
55. The United States seeks to avoid using its nuclear weapons, but remains ready to retaliate against any state that first uses weapons of mass destruction against its forces.
How the United States Protects Its Homeland during War
56. Protecting the homeland remains the most important defense function of the Defense Department, therefore it makes forces available for those purposes as necessary.

  1. Protecting the homeland is first and foremost a matter of deterring attacks that employ weapons of mass destruction by the threat of nuclear retaliation, so the United States maintains and modernizes its nuclear forces.

  2. The United States develops and deploys missile defense to strengthen deterrence and to defend in the event deterrence fails.

  3. The United States is prepared to strike preemptively against any regime or nonstate actor it knows to be planning for, or mounting, an attack against the homeland as part of a
    strategy to degrade U. S. power projection capabilities.

*How the United States Stabilizes Situations as Wars Subside *
60. The United States conducts "psychological operations" to try to win the hearts and minds of the local population toward the goals of its intervention.

  1. The United States makes every necessary effort to track down and incapacitate known belligerents who refuse to comply with conflict-termination agreements; it also facilitates
    the capture, processing, and confinement of individuals suspected of war crimes for later adjudication by internationally recognized courts.

  2. The United States works with local social and political leaders to resurrect basic elements of the government and infrastructure to return life to some semblance of
    normality.

  3. When necessary, the United States conducts emergency humanitarian missions on its own, until civilian or international relief groups can pick up the task.

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THE AFTERMATH OF WAR
When the United States Leaves a War

  1. The United States does not leave until the capital city is under firm control by friendly forces and government.
  2. The United States does not leave until the countryside is no longer roiling with conflict, and appears to be quiet enough for the local constabulary to once again extend its political reach— sometimes with the help of other states' peacekeepers.

  3. The United States does not leave until all the major local players in the conflict basically sign up to the conflict termination agreements and demonstrate their adherence.

  4. The United States does not leave until the magnitude of any ongoing humanitarian crises have been reduced to the point where the international community can meet the
    population's basic needs.

*What the United States Leaves Behind Following a War *
68. The United States may leave behind Special Forces or other Army trainers to help the country rebuild its military and to train them to combat remaining rebels.

  1. If the United States expects to return for further combat in the country or region, it may leave behind a supply of prepositioned materiel, signaling a strong relationship with the surviving/ reconstituted government.
  2. The United States may leave with signed agreements for long-term military cooperation or government-financed arms sales to help the country get its military back on its feet.

*THE EMPLOYMENT OF VARIOUS FORCES IN WAR
How the United States Uses Air Forces in War *

  1. The United States strikes enemies first from the air to suppress air and ground defenses and to hit strategic targets, using its Air Force and/ or naval aviation as defined by circumstances.

  2. Once the United States effectively rules the skies, it is free to choose the time and location of strikes for strategic effect.

  3. Over time, because of increasing accuracy and better intelligence, the United States realizes greater economy of force with its air strike assets, limiting collateral damage. 8

  4. The United States is able to strike with aircraft stationed far away and keep those aircraft loitering on station at length since it has an enormous capability for midair
    refueling.

  5. U. S. air strike assets are managed centrally through an air tasking order, but as network-centric operations mature and enemy forces resort more to dispersing
    themselves, an increasingly larger portion of these assets is freed to respond flexibly to targets of opportunity.

  6. Airlift is a major tool for delivering, dispersing, and removing ground personnel and materiel throughout combat areas.

  7. By gradually increasing the use of unmanned air platforms, the United States loiters longer and closer in dangerous environments while risking fewer personnel.

*How the United States Uses Naval Forces in War *
78. Because the United States "owns" the world's oceans, it focuses its naval forces' combat activities onto the land— including strategic targets deep inland— as part of joint
combat operations.
79. U. S. naval forces are responsible for defending the sea approaches to land against threats from mines, submarines, attack boats, cruise missiles, and air attacks.

  1. Naval forces are part of U. S. joint air strike forces, with Tomahawk land-attack missiles playing a leading role.
  2. U. S. naval forces provide off-shore staging platforms for Marines, Special Forces, and Army forces; the Marines, in particular, are customized to approach combat zones from the sea.
  3. The Military Sealift Command, as part of the joint Transportation Command, transports the vast majority of Army troops and logistic supplies to a theater.

*How the United States Uses Ground Forces in War *
83. Marines, having been designed as a self-supporting force, are a useful interim force until the U. S. assembles larger ground forces.

  1. Marines have specialized capabilities for special operations, chemical-biological responses, and urban warfare, thus expanding the joint commander's tool kit. 9

  2. The Army offers broadly capable large-scale ground units featuring heavy firepower, armored mobility, and air and missile defenses.

  3. Large Army units are moved mainly by sea to prepared staging areas, except for the lightly equipped 18th Airborne Corps.

  4. To minimize ground force casualties, the United States avoids attrition warfare by stressing reconnaissance, overwhelming force, armor and other protections, and rapid
    maneuver.

  5. Ground forces complete the liberation of territory and the eradication of opposing forces.

  6. The Army is the premier long-term occupation force, which means if any nation-building is pursued postconflict, the Army maintains the peace while the transition is
    made to international or local civilian rule.

*How the United States Uses Unconventional Forces in War *
90. Special Forces are the clandestine/ covert infiltration force, so they are used in small numbers for specialized tasks.

  1. Where minimal personnel are needed in the most dangerous situations (e. g., pre-invasion reconnaissance, spotting for air strikes), Special Forces are preferred because they require the least support.

  2. Special Forces set the military standard for cooperation with law enforcement agencies, apprehending combatants in both war and peace.

  3. Special Forces set the standard for cooperation with intelligence agencies because of their sensor-like role in command and control and their unique abilities for
    unconventional tactics against asymmetrical opponents.

  4. When covert preemptive strikes are attempted, the United States employs Special Forces with a level of impunity far beyond previous use of U. S. military power in a
    peacetime environment.

*How the United States Uses Reserve Forces in War *
95. Reserves are the backbone of an American hedge force and homeland security.
96. Reserves are the cornerstone of logistics for combat operations, manning a large part of the airlift and air refueling force.
97. Because of high demand, civil affairs personnel are de facto active-duty assets.

*How the Services Fight Jointly in War *
98. Operations are joint from beginning to end, because Combatant Commanders plan operations according to the law.

  1. Space-based communications assets are the sine qua non of jointness because they move the services past mere deconfliction to genuine operational integration.
  2. Facing no peer competitor and enjoying the lion's share of the earth's surface and space as its operating domain, the United States exploits the exterior position to employ all five services in a network-centric approach that yields their maximum combined combat power.

Dr. Barnett, a Naval War College professor, currently serves as the assistant for strategic futures, Office of Force Transformation, Office of the Secretary of Defense. Dr. Gaffney is a research manager at The CNA Corporation, serving as team leader in the Center for Strategic Studies. The authors thank Vice Admiral Arthur K. Cebrowski, U. S. Navy (Ret.), Professor Bradd Hayes, and Professor Hank Kamradt for their advice on the list.